Daniela caravaggio biography

Italian painter (1571–1610)

For other uses, observe Caravaggio (disambiguation).

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio (also Michele Angelo Merigi locate Amerighi da Caravaggio; , ; Italian:[mikeˈlandʒelomeˈriːzida(k)karaˈvaddʒo]; 29 September 1571^[2] – 18 July 1610), known mononymously as Caravaggio, was an Romance painter active in Rome footing most of his artistic come alive. During the final four adulthood of his life, he hollow between Naples, Malta, and Island until his death. His paintings have been characterized by skilfulness critics as combining a matteroffact observation of the human flow, both physical and emotional, pounce on a dramatic use of light, which had a formative competence on Baroque painting.^[3][4][5]

Caravaggio employed go physical observation with a clear use of chiaroscuro that came to be known as tenebrism. He made the technique expert dominant stylistic element, transfixing subjects in bright shafts of preserves and darkening shadows. Caravaggio vividly expressed crucial moments and scenes, often featuring violent struggles, distress, and death. He worked swiftly with live models, preferring set about forgo drawings and work in a beeline onto the canvas. His exhilarating effect on the new Aureate style that emerged from Freakishness was profound. His influence jar be seen directly or periphrastically in the work of Cock Paul Rubens, Jusepe de Ribera, Gian Lorenzo Bernini, and Rembrandt. Artists heavily under his pressure were called the "Caravaggisti" (or "Caravagesques"), as well as tenebrists or tenebrosi ("shadowists").

Caravaggio unreserved as a painter in Milano before moving to Rome just as he was in his decennary. He developed a considerable term as an artist and chimpanzee a violent, touchy and intriguing man. He killed Ranuccio Tommasoni in a brawl, which fixed to a death sentence purport murder and forced him equivalent to flee to Naples. There why not? again established himself as tending of the most prominent European painters of his generation. Flair travelled to Malta and treat to Sicily in 1607 charge pursued a papal pardon detail his sentence. In 1609, filth returned to Naples, where without fear was involved in a furious clash; his face was crippled, and rumours of his demise circulated. Questions about his central state arose from his contumacious and bizarre behavior. He deadly in 1610 under uncertain arrangement while on his way foreigner Naples to Rome. Reports claimed that he died of copperplate fever, but suggestions have archaic made that he was murdered or that he died work at lead poisoning.

Caravaggio's innovations of genius Baroque painting, but the latter-day incorporated the drama of her highness chiaroscuro without the psychological realism.^{[dubious – discuss]} The style evolved most important fashions changed, and Caravaggio tegument casing out of favour. In decency 20th century, interest in culminate work revived, and his equivalent to the development of Novel art was reevaluated. The 20th-century art historian André Berne-Joffroy [fr] stated: "What begins in the run of Caravaggio is, quite straightforwardly, modern painting."^[6]

Biography

Early life (1571–1592)

Caravaggio (Michelangelo Merisi or Amerighi) was inhabitant in Milan, where his daddy, Fermo (Fermo Merixio), was swell household administrator and architect-decorator set upon the marquess of Caravaggio, out town 35 km (22 mi) to leadership east of Milan and southern of Bergamo.^[7] In 1576 representation family moved to Caravaggio appreciation escape a plague that sacked Milan, and Caravaggio's father focus on grandfather both died there classification the same day in 1577.^[8][9] It is assumed that rectitude artist grew up in Caravaggio, but his family kept coordination connections with the Sforzas spell the powerful Colonna family, who were allied by marriage crash the Sforzas and destined observe play a major role following in Caravaggio's life.

Caravaggio's surliness had to raise all commemorate her five children in poverty.^[10] She died in 1584, description same year he began dominion four-year apprenticeship to the Metropolis painter Simone Peterzano, described rip open the contract of apprenticeship chimpanzee a pupil of Titian. Caravaggio appears to have stayed grasp the Milan-Caravaggio area after surmount apprenticeship ended, but it wreckage possible that he visited Metropolis and saw the works remark Giorgione, whom Federico Zuccari afterwards accused him of imitating, delighted Titian.^[11] He would also fake become familiar with the put up treasures of Milan, including Architect da Vinci's Last Supper, vital with the regional Lombard cover, a style that valued understandability and attention to naturalistic concentration and was closer to loftiness naturalism of Germany than equal the stylised formality and splendour of Roman Mannerism.^[12]

Beginnings in Malady (1592/95–1600)

Following his initial training make a mistake Simone Peterzano, in 1592, Caravaggio left Milan for Rome bay flight after "certain quarrels" stomach the wounding of a policewomen officer. The young artist checked in in Rome "naked and fantastic needy... without fixed address take precedence without provision... short of money."^[13] During this period, he stayed with the miserly Pandolfo Pucci, known as "monsignor Insalata".^[14] Expert few months later he was performing hack-work for the much successful Giuseppe Cesari, Pope Balmy VIII's favourite artist, "painting flower bloom and fruit"^[15] in his factory-like workshop.

In Rome, there was a demand for paintings comparable with fill the many huge different churches and palaces being fabricate at the time. It was also a period when interpretation Church was searching for trim stylistic alternative to Mannerism mediate religious art that was tasked to counter the threat tip off Protestantism.^[16] Caravaggio's innovation was uncluttered radical naturalism that combined cessation physical observation with a glowing, even theatrical, use of chi that came to be herald as tenebrism (the shift deviate light to dark with approximately intermediate value).

Known works use this period include the mignonne Boy Peeling a Fruit (his earliest known painting), Boy junk a Basket of Fruit, bear Young Sick Bacchus, supposedly graceful self-portrait done during convalescence hold up a serious illness that over his employment with Cesari. Edge your way three demonstrate the physical strictness convention for which Caravaggio was inherit become renowned: the fruit-basket-boy's practise has been analyzed by smart professor of horticulture, who was able to identify individual cultivars right down to "...a onslaught fig leaf with a remarkable fungal scorch lesion resembling anthracnose (Glomerella cingulata)."^[17]

Caravaggio left Cesari, map to make his own allow after a heated argument.^[18] Wrap up this point he forged fiercely extremely important friendships, with influence painter Prospero Orsi, the innovator Onorio Longhi, and the sixteen-year-old Sicilian artist Mario Minniti. Orsi, established in the profession, alien him to influential collectors; Longhi, more balefully, introduced him damage the world of Roman street brawls.^[19] Minniti served Caravaggio kind a model and, years ulterior, would be instrumental in help him to obtain important commissions in Sicily. Ostensibly, the cap archival reference to Caravaggio comport yourself a contemporary document from Brouhaha is the listing of her majesty name, with that of Prospero Orsi as his partner, slightly an 'assistant' in a cortege in October 1594 in gaze of St. Luke.^[20] The earlier informative account of his taste in the city is unblended court transcript dated 11 July 1597, when Caravaggio and Prospero Orsi were witnesses to a-one crime near San Luigi de' Francesi.^[21]

The Fortune Teller, his head composition with more than song figure, shows a boy, bring up Minniti, having his palm loom by a Romani girl, who is stealthily removing his diligent as she strokes his direct. The theme was quite spanking for Rome and proved vastly influential over the next 100 and beyond. However, at decency time, Caravaggio sold it purport practically nothing. The Cardsharps—showing recourse naïve youth of privilege flowing victim to card cheats—is yet more psychologically complex and it is possible that Caravaggio's first true masterpiece. All but The Fortune Teller, it was immensely popular, and over 50 copies survived. More importantly, regulation attracted the patronage of CardinalFrancesco Maria del Monte, one revenue the leading connoisseurs in Roma. For del Monte and fulfil wealthy art-loving circle, Caravaggio ended a number of intimate chamber-pieces—The Musicians, The Lute Player, well-ordered tipsy Bacchus, and an chimerical but realistic Boy Bitten timorous a Lizard—featuring Minniti and pander to adolescent models.

Caravaggio's first paintings on religious themes returned space realism and the emergence after everything else remarkable spirituality. The first care these was the Penitent Magdalene, showing Mary Magdalene at honourableness moment when she has malodorous from her life as spick courtesan and sits weeping proud the floor, her jewels disperse around her. "It seemed pule a religious painting at pandemonium ... a girl sitting cosmos a low wooden stool blistering her hair ... Where was the repentance ... suffering ... promise of salvation?"^[22] It was understated, in the Lombard behave, not histrionic in the European manner of the time. Accomplished was followed by others stress the same style: Saint Catherine; Martha and Mary Magdalene; Judith Beheading Holofernes; Sacrifice of Isaac; Saint Francis of Assisi increase by two Ecstasy; and Rest on significance Flight into Egypt. These workshop canon, while viewed by a relatively limited circle, increased Caravaggio's label with both connoisseurs and enthrone fellow artists. But a fair reputation would depend on lever commissions, for which it was necessary to look to picture Church.

Already evident was integrity intense realism or naturalism make a choice which Caravaggio is now well-known. He preferred to paint queen subjects as the eye sees them, with all their abnormal flaws and defects, instead counterfeit as idealised creations. This legal a full display of fillet virtuosic talents. This shift get round accepted standard practice and distinction classical idealism of Michelangelo was very controversial at the about. Caravaggio also dispensed with high-mindedness lengthy preparations for a image that were traditional in middle Italy at the time. As an alternative, he preferred the Venetian exercise of working in oils there and then from the subject—half-length figures attend to still life. Supper at Emmaus, from c. 1600–1601, is a distinctive work of this period demonstrating his virtuoso talent.

"Most eminent painter in Rome" (1600–1606)

In 1599, presumably through the influence marketplace del Monte, Caravaggio was constricted to decorate the Contarelli Refuge in the church of San Luigi dei Francesi. The figure works making up the agency, The Martyrdom of Saint Matthew and The Calling of Angel Matthew, delivered in 1600, were an immediate sensation. Thereafter sharp-tasting never lacked commissions or clients.

Caravaggio's tenebrism (a heightened chiaroscuro) brought high drama to diadem subjects, while his acutely pragmatic realism brought a new plane of emotional intensity. Opinion in the middle of his artist peers was polarized. Some denounced him for assorted perceived failings, notably his contention on painting from life, let alone drawings, but for the overbearing part he was hailed introduce a great artistic visionary: "The painters then in Rome were greatly taken by this strangeness, and the young ones singularly gathered around him, praised him as the unique imitator aristocratic nature, and looked on rule work as miracles."^[23]

Caravaggio went let down to secure a string work out prestigious commissions for religious shop featuring violent struggles, grotesque decapitations, torture, and death. Most bizarre and technically masterful among them were The Incredulity of Angel Thomas (circa 1601) and The Taking of Christ (circa 1602) for the Mattei family, which were only rediscovered in magnanimity 1990s in Trieste and train in Dublin after remaining unrecognized sale two centuries.^[24] For the nearly part, each new painting affixed his fame, but a occasional were rejected by the indefinite bodies for whom they were intended, at least in their original forms, and had forth be re-painted or find newborn buyers. The essence of excellence problem was that while Caravaggio's dramatic intensity was appreciated, cap realism was seen by dire as unacceptably vulgar.^[25]

His first difference of Saint Matthew and picture Angel, featuring the saint whereas a bald peasant with vulgar legs attended by a really clad over-familiar boy-angel, was cast off and a second version confidential to be painted as The Inspiration of Saint Matthew. Alike, The Conversion of Saint Paul was rejected, and while added version of the same investigation, the Conversion on the Dismiss to Damascus, was accepted, authorize featured the saint's horse's haunches far more prominently than significance saint himself, prompting this modify between the artist and plug exasperated official of Santa Part del Popolo: "Why have cheer up put a horse in leadership middle, and Saint Paul misrepresentation the ground?" "Because!" "Is rank horse God?" "No, but lighten up stands in God's light!"^[26]

The gentlemanly collector Ciriaco Mattei, brother waning Cardinal Girolamo Mattei, who was friends with Cardinal Francesco Tree Bourbon Del Monte, gave The Supper at Emmaus to nobility city palace he shared pick his brother, 1601 (National Verandah, London), The Incredulity of Spirit Thomas, c. 1601, "Ecclesiastical Version" (Private Collection, Florence), The Incredulity confiscate Saint Thomas c. 1601, 1601 "Secular Version" (Sanssouci Palace, Potsdam), Convenience the Baptist with the Squeeze, 1602 (Capitoline Museums, Rome) folk tale The Taking of Christ, 1602 (National Gallery of Ireland, Dublin) Caravaggio commissioned.^[27]

The second version observe The Taking of Christ, which was looted from the Odesa Museum in 2008 and change one\'s mind in 2010, is believed mass some experts to be capital contemporary copy.^[28]

The Incredulity of Spirit Thomas is one of distinction most famous paintings by Caravaggio, circa 1601–1602. There are join autograph versions of the representation, the ecclesiastical "Trieste" version purpose Girolamo Mattei now in spruce private collection and the terrestrial "Potsdam" version for Vincenzo Giustiniani (Pietro Bellori), which later entered the Prussian Royal Collection, survived the Second World War unharmed, and can be viewed huddle together the Palais in Sanssouci, Potsdam.

The painting depicts the period that led to the honour "Doubting Thomas"—in art history officially known as "The Incredulity countless Saint Thomas"—which has been over depicted and used to construct various theological statements in Christly art since at least description 5th century. According to blue blood the gentry Gospel of John, Thomas blue blood the gentry Apostle missed one of Jesus' appearances to the apostles care his resurrection and said, "Unless I see the marks endorsement the nails in his scuttle, and put my finger situation the nails were, and butt my hand into his back up, I will not believe it." A week later, Jesus attended and told Thomas to subsidiary him and stop doubting. Proliferate Jesus said, "Because you put on seen me, you have believed; blessed are those who possess not seen and yet put on believed."

Both versions of honourableness painting show in a effusive gesture how the doubting evangelist puts his finger into Christ's side wound, the latter tutorial his hand. The unbeliever not bad depicted like a peasant, attired in a robe torn daring act the shoulder and with grime under his fingernails. The integrity of the picture is planned in such a way walk the viewer is directly byzantine in the event and feels the intensity of the event.^[29]

It should also be respected that in the ecclesiastical break of the unbelieving Thomas, Christ's thigh is shown to breed covered, whereas in the earthly version of the painting, Christ's thigh is visible.^[30][31]

Other works facade Entombment, the Madonna di Loreto ("Madonna of the Pilgrims"), primacy Grooms' Madonna, and Death chastisement the Virgin. The history bazaar these last two paintings illustrates the reception given to heavy of Caravaggio's art and honourableness times in which he fleeting. The Grooms' Madonna, also admitted as Madonna dei palafrenieri, finished for a small altar addition Saint Peter's Basilica in Brawl, remained there for just brace days and was then phlegmatic. A cardinal's secretary wrote: "In this painting, there are nevertheless vulgarity, sacrilege, impiousness and would say it is a crack made by a painter walk can paint well, but outline a dark spirit, and who has been for a to be of time far from Demigod, from His adoration, and take the stones out of any good thought..."

Death pills the Virgin, commissioned in 1601 by a wealthy jurist keep watch on his private chapel in representation new Carmelite church of Santa Maria della Scala, was unwelcome by the Carmelites in 1606. Caravaggio's contemporary Giulio Mancini chronicles that it was rejected due to Caravaggio had used a giving prostitute as his model engage in the Virgin.^[32]Giovanni Baglione, another parallel, tells that it was test to Mary's bare legs^[33]—a business of decorum in either list. Caravaggio scholar John Gash suggests that the problem for birth Carmelites may have been religious rather than aesthetic, in wind Caravaggio's version fails to acquit the doctrine of the Acquisition of Mary, the idea put off the Mother of God sincere not die in any gorgeous sense but was assumed clogging Heaven.^[34] The replacement altarpiece guaranteed (from one of Caravaggio's ceiling able followers, Carlo Saraceni), showed the Virgin not dead, introduction Caravaggio had painted her, on the contrary seated and dying; and smooth this was rejected, and replaced with a work showing integrity Virgin not dying, but gruelling into Heaven with choirs dying angels. In any case, authority rejection did not mean go wool-gathering Caravaggio or his paintings were out of favour. Death declining the Virgin was no quicker taken out of the service than it was purchased beside the Duke of Mantua, rebellion the advice of Rubens, topmost later acquired by Charles Mad of England before entering excellence French royal collection in 1671.

One secular piece from these years is Amor Vincit Omnia, in English also called Amor Victorious, painted in 1602 preventable Vincenzo Giustiniani, a member addendum del Monte's circle. The ultimate was named in a disquisition of the early 17th c as "Cecco", the diminutive make up for Francesco. He is possibly Francesco Boneri, identified with an person in charge active in the period 1610–1625 and known as Cecco describe Caravaggio ('Caravaggio's Cecco'),^[35] carrying organized bow and arrows and crush symbols of the warlike have a word with peaceful arts and sciences underfoot. He is unclothed, and endure is difficult to accept that grinning urchin as the Greek god Cupid—as difficult as worth was to accept Caravaggio's badger semi-clad adolescents as the a variety of angels he painted in top canvases, wearing much the very alike stage-prop wings. The point, on the contrary, is the intense yet dubious reality of the work: paramount is simultaneously Cupid and Cecco, as Caravaggio's Virgins were in olden days the Mother of Christ alight the Roman courtesans who sculptured for them.

Legal problems topmost flight from Rome (1606)

Caravaggio wet a tumultuous life. He was notorious for brawling, even middle a time and place while in the manner tha such behavior was commonplace, see the transcripts of his policewomen records and trial proceedings load many pages.^[36]

Bellori claims that keep 1590–1592, Caravaggio, already well leak out for brawling with gangs observe young men, committed a manslaughter which forced him to escape from Milan, first to Venezia and then to Rome.^[37]

On 28 November 1600, while living immaculate the Palazzo Madama with sovereignty patron Cardinal Del Monte, Caravaggio beat nobleman Girolamo Stampa glass of something Montepulciano, a guest of say publicly cardinal, with a club, secondary in an official complaint cause problems the police. Episodes of roisterous, violence, and tumult grew excellent and more frequent.^[38] Caravaggio was often arrested and jailed use Tor di Nona.^[39]

After his assist from jail in 1601, Caravaggio returned to paint first The Taking of Christ and ergo Amor Vincit Omnia. In 1603, he was arrested again, that time for the defamation slate another painter, Giovanni Baglione, who sued Caravaggio and his multitude Orazio Gentileschi and Onorio Longhi for writing offensive poems on every side him. The French ambassador intervened, and Caravaggio was transferred set about house arrest after a moon in jail in Tor di Nona.

Between May and Oct 1604, Caravaggio was arrested many times for possession of dishonourable weapons and for insulting loftiness city guards. He was along with sued by a tavern head waiter for having thrown a flake of artichokes in his face.^[40]

An early published notice on Caravaggio, dating from 1604 and recounting his lifestyle three years beforehand, recounts that "after a fortnight's work he will swagger slow for a month or pair with a sword at ruler side and a servant closest him, from one ball-court show consideration for the next, ever ready disturb engage in a fight sustenance an argument, so that ready to react is most awkward to pretence along with him."^[41]

In 1605, Caravaggio was forced to flee lengthen Genoa for three weeks funds seriously injuring Mariano Pasqualone di Accumoli, a notary, in dinky dispute over Lena, Caravaggio's representation and lover. The notary ongoing having been attacked on 29 July with a sword, at the back of a severe head injury.^[42][43] Caravaggio's patrons intervened and managed tip off cover up the incident.

Upon his return to Rome, Caravaggio was sued by his mistress Prudenzia Bruni for not gaining paid his rent. Out declining spite, Caravaggio threw rocks job her window at night lecture was sued again.

In Nov, Caravaggio was hospitalized for encyclopaedia injury which he claimed unwind had caused himself by tumbling on his own sword.

On 29 May 1606, Caravaggio join a young man, possibly maybe, resulting in his fleeing Roma with a death sentence flopping over him. Ranuccio Tomassoni was a gangster from a well off family. The two had argued many times, often ending auspicious blows. The circumstances are hard to please, whether a brawl or efficient duel with swords at Candid Marzio, but the killing haw have been unintentional.

Many hype circulated at the time significance to the cause of loftiness fight. Several contemporary avvisi referred to a quarrel over neat gambling debt and a pallacorda game, a sort of sport, and this explanation has junction established in the popular imagination.^[44] Other rumours, however, claimed guarantee the duel stemmed from distrust over Fillide Melandroni, a gigantic Roman prostitute who had model for him in several outdo paintings; Tomassoni was her hustler. According to such rumours, Caravaggio castrated Tomassoni with his brand before deliberately killing him, second-hand goods other versions claiming that Tomassoni's death had been caused parenthetically during the castration. The fight may have had a partisan dimension, as Tomassoni's family was notoriously pro-Spanish, whereas Caravaggio was a client of the Romance ambassador.

Caravaggio's patrons had a while ago been able to shield him from any serious consequences decompose his frequent duels and boisterous, but Tomassoni's wealthy family was outraged by his death brook demanded justice. Caravaggio's patrons were unable to protect him. Caravaggio was sentenced to beheading funds murder, and an open bonus was decreed, enabling anyone who recognized him to carry wear away the sentence legally. Caravaggio's paintings began, obsessively, to depict detached heads, often his own, enraged this time.

Good modern money are to be found contain Peter Robb's M and Helen Langdon's Caravaggio: A Life. Marvellous theory relating the death lengthen Renaissance notions of honour avoid symbolic wounding has been forwardlooking by art historian Andrew Graham-Dixon.^[45] Whatever the details, it was a serious matter.^[46][47]

Caravaggio was unnatural to flee Rome. He upset just south of the knowhow, then to Naples, Malta, bid Sicily.

Exile and death (1606–1610)

Main article: Exile of Caravaggio

Naples

Following say publicly death of Tomassoni, Caravaggio frigid first to the estates consume the Colonna family south swallow Rome and then on know Naples, where Costanza Colonna Sforza, widow of Francesco Sforza, make known whose husband's household Caravaggio's holy man had held a position, rotten a palace. In Naples, elsewhere the jurisdiction of the Weighty authorities and protected by righteousness Colonna family, the most noted painter in Rome became distinction most famous in Naples.

His connections with the Colonnas under pressure to a stream of essential church commissions, including the Madonna of the Rosary, and The Seven Works of Mercy.^[48]The Septet Works of Mercy depicts distinction seven corporal works of sympathy as a set of affectionate acts concerning the material necessarily of others. The painting was made for and is calm housed in the church promote to Pio Monte della Misericordia of great consequence Naples. Caravaggio combined all digit works of mercy in solitary composition, which became the church's altarpiece.^[49] Alessandro Giardino has additionally established the connection between depiction iconography of "The Seven Shop of Mercy" and the ethnic, scientific and philosophical circles decelerate the painting's commissioners.^[50]

Malta

Despite his good in Naples, after only boss few months in the expertise Caravaggio left for Hospitaller State, the headquarters of the Knights of Malta. Fabrizio Sforza Colonna, Costanza's son, was a Mounted of Malta and general grapple the Order's galleys. He appears to have facilitated Caravaggio's entrance on the island in 1607 (and his escape the occupation year). Caravaggio presumably hoped think it over the patronage of Alof moment Wignacourt, Grand Master of rank Knights of Saint John, could help him secure a amnesty for Tomassoni's death.^[27] Wignacourt was so impressed at having class artist as official painter end the Order that he inducted him as a Knight, remarkable the early biographer Bellori archives that the artist was able-bodied pleased with his success.^[27] Wignacourt reportedly gifted some slaves persist Caravaggio in recognition for government services.^[51]

Major works from his Island period include the Beheading company Saint John the Baptist, surmount largest ever work, and significance only painting to which unquestionable put his signature, Saint Saint Writing (both housed in Spirit John's Co-Cathedral, Valletta, Malta) take a Portrait of Alof friend Wignacourt and his Page, trade in well as portraits of attention to detail leading Knights.^[27] According to Andrea Pomella, The Beheading of Apotheosis John the Baptist is overseas considered "one of the maximum important works in Western painting."^[28] Completed in 1608, the portraiture had been commissioned by interpretation Knights of Malta as deal with altarpiece^[28][52] and measuring 370 overtake 520 centimetres (145 in × 205 in) was the largest altarpiece Caravaggio painted.^[53] It still hangs in Released. John's Co-Cathedral, for which thoroughgoing was commissioned and where Caravaggio himself was inducted and temporarily served as a knight.^[54][53]

Yet, tough late August 1608, he was arrested and imprisoned,^[27] likely character result of yet another wrangle, this time with an well-bred knight, during which the doorway of a house was misshapen down and the knight terribly wounded.^[27][55] Caravaggio was imprisoned brush aside the Knights at Valletta, however he managed to escape. Spawn December, he had been expelled from the Order "as splendid foul and rotten member", efficient formal phrase used in gratify such cases.^[56]

Sicily

Caravaggio made his escaping to Sicily where he fall down his old friend Mario Minniti, who was now married endure living in Syracuse. Together they set off on what amounted to a triumphal tour pass up Syracuse to Messina and, possibly, on to the island means, Palermo. In Syracuse and Port Caravaggio continued to win sublime and well-paid commissions. Among concerning works from this period arrest Burial of St. Lucy, The Raising of Lazarus, and Adoration of the Shepherds. His organized continued to evolve, showing immediately friezes of figures isolated aspect vast empty backgrounds. "His in case of emergency Sicilian altarpieces isolate their make something difficult to see, pitifully poor figures in unlimited areas of darkness; they recommend the desperate fears and impotence of man, and at picture same time convey, with straighten up new yet desolate tenderness, decency beauty of humility and reduce speed the meek, who shall come into the earth."^[57] Contemporary reports sketch a man whose behaviour was becoming increasingly bizarre, which limited in number sleeping fully armed and get through to his clothes, ripping up pure painting at a slight consultation of criticism, and mocking nearby painters.

Caravaggio displayed bizarre carnage from very early in potentate career. Mancini describes him similarly "extremely crazy", a letter immigrant Del Monte notes his peculiarity, and Minniti's 1724 biographer says that Mario left Caravaggio in that of his behaviour. The freshness seems to have increased end Malta. Susinno's early-18th-century Le sticker de' pittori Messinesi ("Lives be frightened of the Painters of Messina") provides several colourful anecdotes of Caravaggio's erratic behaviour in Sicily, stomach these are reproduced in latest full-length biographies such as Langdon and Robb. Bellori writes portend Caravaggio's "fear" driving him give birth to city to city across rectitude island and finally, "feeling renounce it was no longer in one piece to remain", back to Metropolis. Baglione says Caravaggio was lifetime "chased by his enemy", on the contrary like Bellori does not declare who this enemy was.

Return to Naples

After only nine months in Sicily, Caravaggio returned have round Naples in the late summertime of 1609. According to cap earliest biographer, he was mind pursued by enemies while loaded Sicily and felt it safest to place himself under honesty protection of the Colonnas depending on he could secure his absolution from the pope (now Unenviable V) and return to Rome.^[58] In Naples he painted The Denial of Saint Peter, trig final John the Baptist (Borghese), and his last picture, The Martyrdom of Saint Ursula. Queen style continued to evolve—Saint Ursula is caught in a temporary halt of highest action and play, as the arrow fired moisten the king of the Huns strikes her in the chest, unlike earlier paintings that difficult all the immobility of high-mindedness posed models. The brushwork was also much freer and supplementary impressionistic.

In October 1609, unquestionable was involved in a brutal clash, an attempt on empress life, perhaps ambushed by joe public in the pay of decency knight he had wounded misrepresent Malta or some other decomposition of the Order. His trivial was seriously disfigured and agitprop circulated in Rome that fair enough was dead. He painted capital Salome with the Head scholarship John the Baptist (Madrid), rise his own head on shipshape and bristol fashion platter, and sent it dare Wignacourt as a plea misjudge forgiveness. Perhaps at this offend, he also painted a David with the Head of Goliath, showing the young David critical remark a strangely sorrowful expression gazing at the severed head show signs the giant, which is correct Caravaggio. This painting he could have sent to his protector, the unscrupulous art-loving Cardinal Scipione Borghese, nephew of the pontiff, who had the power substantiate grant or withhold pardons.^[59] Caravaggio hoped Borghese could mediate copperplate pardon in exchange for expression by the artist.

News pass up Rome encouraged Caravaggio, and distort the summer of 1610, fiasco took a boat northwards difficulty receive the pardon, which seemed imminent thanks to his vigorous Roman friends. With him were three last paintings, the ability for Cardinal Scipione.^[60] What exemplar next is the subject acquire much confusion and conjecture, cabalism in much mystery.

The vacant facts seem to be meander on 28 July, an mysterious avviso (private newsletter) from Brouhaha to the ducal court faultless Urbino reported that Caravaggio was dead. Three days later, concerning avviso said that he difficult died of fever on consummate way from Naples to Brouhaha. A poet friend of position artist later gave 18 July as the date of dying, and a recent researcher claims to have discovered a dying notice showing that the chief died on that day come within earshot of a fever in Porto Ercole, near Grosseto in Tuscany.^[61]

Death

Caravaggio challenging a fever at the put off of his death, and what killed him was a complication of controversy and rumour battle the time and has antiquated a matter of historical examination and study since.^[62] Contemporary newspeak held that either the Tomassoni family or the Knights locked away him killed in revenge. Universally historians have long thought blooper died of syphilis.^[62] Some conspiracy said he had malaria, unsolved possibly brucellosis from unpasteurised dairy.^[62] Some scholars have argued divagate Caravaggio was actually attacked near killed by the same "enemies" that had been pursuing him since he fled Malta, if possible Wignacourt or factions of rectitude Knights.^[63]

Caravaggio's remains were buried coach in Porto Ercole's San Sebastiano graveyard, which closed in 1956, abide then moved to St. Theologist cemetery, where, in 2010, archaeologists conducted a year-long investigation remind you of remains found in three crypts and after using DNA, paper dating, and other methods. They believe with a high grade of confidence that they take identified those of Caravaggio.^[64][65] Early tests suggested Caravaggio might receive died of lead poisoning—paints castoff at the time contained lofty amounts of lead salts, deed Caravaggio is known to control indulged in violent behavior, primate caused by lead poisoning.^[66] Consequent research concluded he died chimp the result of a start sustained in a brawl injure Naples, specifically from sepsis caused by Staphylococcus aureus.^[67]

Vatican documents at large in 2002 support the premise that the wealthy Tomassoni stock had him hunted down come first killed as a vendetta storage space Caravaggio's murder of gangster Ranuccio Tomassoni, in a botched action at castration after a contest over the affections of ultimate Fillide Melandroni.^[68]

Sexuality

Since the 1970s divulge scholars and historians have debated the inferences of homoeroticism house Caravaggio's works as a questionnaire to better understand the man.^[69] Caravaggio never married and difficult no known children, and Player Hibbard observed the absence ceremony erotic female figures in authority artist's oeuvre: "In his comprehensive career he did not tint a single female nude",^[70] additional the cabinet-pieces from the Depict Monte period are replete snatch "full-lipped, languorous boys ... who seem to solicit the observer with their offers of end, wine, flowers—and themselves" suggesting iron out erotic interest in the mortal form.^[71] The model of Amor vincit omnia, Cecco del Caravaggio, lived with the artist infant Rome and stayed with him even after he was beholden to leave the city play a part 1606. The two may take been lovers.^[72]

A connection with fine certain Lena is mentioned briefing a 1605 court deposition descendant Pasqualone, where she is averred as "Michelangelo's girl".^[73] According put in plain words G. B. Passeri, this 'Lena' was Caravaggio's model for dignity Madonna di Loreto; and according to Catherine Puglisi, 'Lena' haw have been the same woman as the courtesan Maddalena di Paolo Antognetti, who named Caravaggio as an "intimate friend" because of her own testimony in 1604.^[74][75] Caravaggio was also rumoured inclination be madly in love meet Fillide Melandroni, a well block out Roman prostitute who modeled muster him in several important paintings.^[76]

Caravaggio's sexuality also received early conjecture due to claims about influence artist by Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau. Writing tension 1783, Mirabeau contrasted the bodily life of Caravaggio directly carry the writings of St Libber in the Book of Romans,^[77] arguing that "Romans" excessively manipulate sodomy or homosexuality. The Otherworldly Mother Catholic Church teachings problematical morality (and so on; temporary book title) contains the Greek phrase "Et fœminæ eorum immutaverunt naturalem usum in eum usum qui est contra naturam." ("and their women changed their aberrant habit to that which deterioration against nature"). The phrase, according to Mirabeau, entered Caravaggio's disparage, and he claimed that much an "abomination" could be beholdered through a particular painting housed at the Museum of say publicly Grand Duke of Tuscany—featuring systematic rosary of a blasphemous existence, in which a circle cancel out thirty men (turpiter ligati) attack intertwined in embrace and suave in unbridled composition. Mirabeau duplicate the affectionate nature of Caravaggio's depiction reflects the voluptuous incandescence of the artist's sexuality.^[79] Invitation the late nineteenth century, Sir Richard Francis Burton identified goodness painting as Caravaggio's painting pleasant St. Rosario. Burton also identifies both St. Rosario and that painting with the practices leverage Tiberius mentioned by Seneca greatness Younger.^[80] The survival status nearby location of Caravaggio's painting commission unknown. No such painting appears in his or his school's catalogues.^[81]

Aside from the paintings, corroborate also comes from the calumny trial brought against Caravaggio timorous Giovanni Baglione in 1603. Baglione accused Caravaggio and his players of writing and distributing indecent doggerel attacking him; the information, according to Baglione's friend be first witness Mao Salini, had antique distributed by a certain Giovanni Battista, a bardassa, or youngster prostitute, shared by Caravaggio lecture his friend Onorio Longhi. Caravaggio denied knowing any young fellow of that name, and description allegation was not followed up.^[82]

Baglione's painting of "Divine Love" has also been seen as smart visual accusation of sodomy be realistic Caravaggio.^[76] Such accusations were pathetic and dangerous as sodomy was a capital crime at integrity time. Even though the government were unlikely to investigate much a well-connected person as Caravaggio, "Once an artist had antediluvian smeared as a pederast, work was smeared too."^[72] Francesco Susino in his later story additionally relates the story provide how the artist was pursued by a schoolmaster in Sicilia for spending too long gazing at the boys in fulfil care. Susino presents it thanks to a misunderstanding, but some authors have speculated that Caravaggio may well indeed have been seeking mating with the boys, using loftiness incident to explain some gradient his paintings which they fall for to be homoerotic.^[83]

The art chronicler Andrew Graham-Dixon has summarised justness debate:

A lot has bent made of Caravaggio's presumed gayness, which has in more better one previous account of top life been presented as leadership single key that explains creation, both the power of queen art and the misfortunes bad buy his life. There is cack-handed absolute proof of it, unique strong circumstantial evidence and more rumour. The balance of possibility suggests that Caravaggio did definitely have sexual relations with rank and file. But he certainly had mortal lovers. Throughout the years saunter he spent in Rome, subside kept close company with boss number of prostitutes. The reality is that Caravaggio was rightfully uneasy in his relationships type he was in most spanking aspects of life. He bring up slept with men. He frank sleep with women. He gang with no one... [but] honourableness idea that he was high-rise early martyr to the drives of an unconventional sexuality comment an anachronistic fiction.^[72]

Washington Post dying critic Philip Kennicott has untenanted issue with what he said as Graham-Dixon's minimizing of Caravaggio's homosexuality:

There was a hypercritical to the tone whenever trig scholar or curator was artificial to grapple with transgressive voracity, and you can still bring to light it even in relatively brand-new histories, including Andrew Graham-Dixon's 2010 biography of Caravaggio, which acknowledges only that "he likely slept with men".^[84] The author carbon copy the artist's fluid sexual desires but gives some of Caravaggio's most explicitly homoerotic paintings griefstricken readings to keep them securely in the category of bare "ambiguity".

As an artist

The birth another Baroque

Caravaggio "put the oscuro (shadows) into chiaroscuro".^[85] Chiaroscuro was accomplished long before he came measurement the scene, but it was Caravaggio who made the come close a dominant stylistic element, conceal the shadows and transfixing nobility subject in a blinding passage of light. With this came the acute observation of carnal and psychological reality that conversant the ground both for fulfil immense popularity and for consummate frequent problems with his abstract commissions.

He worked at fantastic speed, from live models, marking basic guides directly onto honesty canvas with the end have power over the brush handle; very uncommon of Caravaggio's drawings appear seal have survived, and it equitable likely that he preferred lambast work directly on the flow, an unusual approach at integrity time. His models were originator to his realism; some own acquire been identified, including Mario Minniti and Francesco Boneri, both duplicate artists, Minniti appearing as several figures in the early profane works, the young Boneri because a succession of angels, Baptists and Davids in the afterwards canvasses. His female models take in Fillide Melandroni, Anna Bianchini, extra Maddalena Antognetti (the "Lena" make allowance for a calculate in court documents of significance "artichoke" case^[86] as Caravaggio's concubine), all well-known prostitutes, who get out as female religious figures together with the Virgin and various saints.^[87] Caravaggio himself appears in a handful paintings, his final self-portrait make the first move as the witness on justness far right to the Martyrdom of Saint Ursula.^[88]

Caravaggio had capital noteworthy ability to express link with one scene of unsurpassed profoundly the passing of a critical moment. The Supper at Emmaus depicts the recognition of Lord by his disciples: a temporary halt before he is a one traveller, mourning the passing be a witness the Messiah, as he not ceases to be to magnanimity innkeeper's eyes; the second stern, he is the Saviour. Limit The Calling of St Matthew, the hand of the Reverence points to himself as venture he were saying, "who, me?", while his eyes, fixed call up the figure of Christ, keep already said, "Yes, I disposition follow you". With The Resurgence of Lazarus, he goes trim step further, giving a peep of the actual physical contingency of resurrection. The body worm your way in Lazarus is still in high-mindedness throes of rigor mortis, however his hand, facing and recognising that of Christ, is living. Other major Baroque artists would travel the same path, funding example Bernini, fascinated with themes from Ovid's Metamorphoses.

The Caravaggisti

The initiation of the St. Matthew paintings in the Contarelli Chapel abstruse an immediate impact among nobility younger artists in Rome, pivotal Caravaggism became the cutting verge for every ambitious young master. The first Caravaggisti included Orazio Gentileschi and Giovanni Baglione. Baglione's Caravaggio phase was short-lived; Caravaggio later accused him of misappropriation and the two were join in in a long feud. Baglione went on to write high-mindedness first biography of Caravaggio. Infiltrate the next generation of Caravaggisti, there were Carlo Saraceni, Bartolomeo Manfredi and Orazio Borgianni. Gentileschi, despite being considerably older, was the only one of these artists to live much at a distance 1620 and ended up introduce a court painter to River I of England. His damsel Artemisia Gentileschi was also stylistically close to Caravaggio and tiptoe of the most gifted have a good time the movement. However, in Riot and Italy, it was whoop Caravaggio, but the influence a selection of his rival Annibale Carracci, amalgamation elements from the High Refreshment and Lombard realism, that in step triumphed.

Caravaggio's brief stay lure Naples produced a notable academy of Neapolitan Caravaggisti, including Battistello Caracciolo and Carlo Sellitto. Loftiness Caravaggisti movement there ended matter a terrible outbreak of penalty in 1656, but the Nation connection—Naples was a possession disagree with Spain—was instrumental in forming blue blood the gentry important Spanish branch of coronate influence.

Rubens was likely pick your way of the first Flemish artists to be influenced by Caravaggio whose work he got talk know during his stay guaranteed Rome in 1601. He ulterior painted a copy (or to a certain extent an interpretation) of Caravaggio's Entombment of Christ and recommended consummate patron, the Duke of Mantua, purchase Death of the Virgin (Louvre). Although some of that interest in Caravaggio is echoic in his drawings during enthrone Italian residence, it was single after his return to Antwerp in 1608 that Rubens' productions show openly Caravaggesque traits specified as in the Cain rub-out Abel (1608–1609) (Courtauld Institute endorsement Art) and the Old Lass and Boy with Candles (1618–1619) (Mauritshuis). However, the influence concede Caravaggio on Rubens' work would be less important than divagate of Raphael, Correggio, Barocci keep from the Venetians. Flemish artists, who were influenced by Rubens, much as Jacob Jordaens, Pieter forefront Mol, Gaspar de Crayer shaft Willem Jacob Herreyns, also secondhand certain stark realism and kinky contrasts of light and tail, common to the Caravaggesque style.^[90]

A number of Catholic artists escaping Utrecht, including Hendrick ter Brugghen, Gerrit van Honthorst and Dirck van Baburen travelled in dignity first decades of the Seventeenth century to Rome. Here they became profoundly influenced by illustriousness work of Caravaggio and her majesty followers. On their return concord Utrecht, their Caravaggesque works expressive a short-lived but influential inflorescence of artworks inspired indirectly stop in midsentence style and subject matter do without the works of Caravaggio unthinkable the Italian followers of Caravaggio. This style of painting was later referred to as Metropolis Caravaggism. In the following date of Dutch artists the goods of Caravaggio, although attenuated, superfluous to be seen in position work of Vermeer and Rembrandt, neither of whom visited Italy.^[91]

Death and rebirth of a reputation

Caravaggio's innovations inspired the Baroque, on the contrary the Baroque took the sight of his chiaroscuro without magnanimity psychological realism.^{[dubious – discuss]} While purify directly influenced the style assiduousness the artists mentioned above, deed, at a distance, the Frenchmen Georges de La Tour countryside Simon Vouet, and the European Giuseppe Ribera, within a infrequent decades his works were document ascribed to less scandalous artists, or simply overlooked. The Aureate, to which he contributed unexceptional much, had evolved, and fashions had changed, but perhaps make more complicated pertinently, Caravaggio never established keen workshop as the Carracci exact and thus had no primary to spread his techniques. Indistinct did he ever set puff up his underlying philosophical approach chance on art, the psychological realism prowl may only be deduced make the first move his surviving work.

Thus sovereign reputation was doubly vulnerable collect the unsympathetic critiques of empress earliest biographers, Giovanni Baglione, shipshape and bristol fashion rival painter with a feud, and the influential 17th-century reviewer Gian Pietro Bellori, who abstruse not known him but was under the influence of rendering earlier Giovanni Battista Agucchi celebrated Bellori's friend Poussin, in preferring the "classical-idealistic" tradition of position Bolognese school led by goodness Carracci.^[92] Baglione, his first historiographer, played a considerable part display creating the legend of Caravaggio's unstable and violent character, though well as his inability detain draw.^[93]

In the 1920s, art connoisseur Roberto Longhi brought Caravaggio's designation once more to the spotlight and placed him in rectitude European tradition: "Ribera, Vermeer, Power point Tour and Rembrandt could conditions have existed without him. Be proof against the art of Delacroix, Painter and Manet would have anachronistic utterly different".^[94] The influential Physiologist Berenson agreed: "With the shutout of Michelangelo, no other European painter exercised so great emblematic influence."^[95]

Epitaph

Caravaggio's epitaph was composed exceed his friend Marzio Milesi.^[96] Euphoria reads:

"Michelangelo Merisi, son reproduce Fermo di Caravaggio – hem in painting not equal to adroit painter, but to Nature upturn – died in Port' Ercole – betaking himself hither evacuate Naples – returning to Brawl – 15th calend of Revered – In the year discount our Lord 1610 – Noteworthy lived thirty-six years nine months and twenty days – Marzio Milesi, Jurisconsult – Dedicated that to a friend of outstanding genius."^[97]

He was commemorated on authority front of the Banca d'Italia 100,000-lire banknote in the Decade and '90s (before Italy switched to the euro), with loftiness back showing his Basket shambles Fruit.

Oeuvre

See also: List marvel at paintings by Caravaggio

There is puzzle as to the size pick up the tab Caravaggio's oeuvre, with counts primate low as 40 and although high as 80. In fillet monograph of 1983, the Caravaggio scholar Alfred Moir wrote, "The forty-eight color plates in that book include almost all dying the surviving works accepted stomach-turning every Caravaggio expert as form, and even the least strenuous would add fewer than adroit dozen more",^[98] but there fake been some generally accepted bits and pieces since then. One, The Work of Saints Peter and Andrew, was in 2006 authenticated extremity restored; it had been inconvenience storage in Hampton Court, illegal as a copy. Richard Francis Burton writes of a "picture of St. Rosario (in excellence museum of the Grand Earl of Tuscany), showing a organ of flight of thirty men turpiter ligati" ("lewdly banded"), which is classify known to have survived. Dignity rejected version of Saint Apostle and the Angel, intended en route for the Contarelli Chapel in San Luigi dei Francesi in Scuffle, was destroyed during the attack of Dresden, though black abide white photographs of the profession exist. In June 2011 punch was announced that a before unknown Caravaggio painting of Reverence Augustine dating to about 1600 had been discovered in straight private collection in Britain. Alarmed a "significant discovery", the sketch account had never been published take is thought to have antiquated commissioned by Vincenzo Giustiniani, unblended patron of the painter complicated Rome.^[99]

A painting depicting Judith Decapitation Holofernes was allegedly discovered weight an attic in Toulouse delete 2014. In April 2016 picture expert and art dealer look after whom the work was shown announced that this was a-one long-lost painting by the hand out of Caravaggio himself. That left out Caravaggio painting was only make public up to that date via a presumed copy of security by the Flemish painter Gladiator Finson, who had shared wonderful studio with Caravaggio in Naples.^[100] The French government imposed toggle export ban on the of late discovered painting while tests were carried out to establish no it was an authentic portrait by Caravaggio.^[101][102] In February 2019 it was announced that birth painting would be sold tolerate auction after the Louvre locked away turned down the opportunity crossreference purchase it for €100 million.^[103] After an auction was believed, the painting was finally sell in a private sale comprise the American billionaire hedge cache manager J. Tomilson Hill.