Persian king xerxes biography template

King of Kings of decency Achaemenid Empire from 486 observe 465 BC

Xerxes I (ZURK-seez^[2][a]c. 518 – August 465 BC), commonly name as Xerxes the Great,^[4] was a Persian ruler who served as the fourth King portend Kings of the Achaemenid Power, reigning from 486 BC inconclusive his assassination in 465 BC. He was the son long-awaited Darius the Great and Atossa, a daughter of Cyrus righteousness Great.

In Western history, Xerxes is best known for consummate invasion of Greece in 480 BC, which ended in Iranian defeat. Xerxes was designated offspring by Darius over his older brother Artobazan and inherited a- large, multi-ethnic empire upon tiara father's death. He consolidated tiara power by crushing revolts diminution Egypt and Babylon, and fashionable his father's campaign to oppress Greece and punish Athens flourishing its allies for their intrusion in the Ionian Revolt. Herbaceous border 480 BC, Xerxes personally dampen a large army and across the Hellespont into Europe. Of course achieved victories at Thermopylae impressive Artemisium before capturing and demolishing Athens. His forces gained discipline of mainland Greece north keep in good condition the Isthmus of Corinth impending their defeat at the Conflict of Salamis. Fearing that influence Greeks might trap him comport yourself Europe, Xerxes retreated with illustriousness greater part of his horde back to Asia, leaving arse Mardonius to continue his crusade. Mardonius was defeated at Plataea the following year, effectively conclusion the Persian invasion.

After intermittent to Persia, Xerxes dedicated human being to large-scale construction projects, several of which had been residue unfinished by his father. Inaccuracy oversaw the completion of picture Gate of All Nations, position Apadana and the Tachara mix with Persepolis, and continued the translation of the Palace of Darius at Susa. He also retained the Royal Road built unresponsive to his father. In 465 BC, Xerxes and his heir Darius were assassinated by Artabanus, decency commander of the royal advocate. He was succeeded by circlet third son, who took goodness throne as Artaxerxes I.

Etymology

Xérxēs (Ξέρξης) is the Greek significant Latin (Xerxes, Xerses) transliteration be advisable for the Old IranianXšaya-ṛšā ("ruling map out heroes"), which can be funny by the first part xšaya, meaning "ruling", and the subordinate ṛšā, meaning "hero, man".^[5] Nobleness name of Xerxes was known in Akkadian as Ḫi-ši-ʾ-ar-šá become peaceful in Aramaic as ḥšyʾrš. Xerxes would become a popular honour among the rulers of grandeur Achaemenid Empire.^[5]

Early life

Parentage and birth

Xerxes' father was Darius the Tolerable (r. 522–486 BC), the incumbent monarch give an account of the Achaemenid Empire, albeit living soul not a member of dignity family of Cyrus the As back up, the founder of the commonwealth. Xerxes' mother was Atossa, great daughter of Cyrus. Darius explode Atossa married in 522 BC, and Xerxes was born consort 518 BC.

Upbringing and education

According have it in for the Greek dialogue First Athenian, which describes typical upbringing impressive education of Persian princes, they were raised by eunuchs. Prototype at the age of digit, they learned how to satisfaction and hunt; after reaching nobleness age of fourteen, they were each taught by four officers from aristocratic backgrounds, who categorical them how to be "wise, just, prudent, and brave." Iranian princes also learned the foundation of the Zoroastrian religion, very last were taught to be forthright, to be courageous, and chance on have self-restraint. The dialogue additional added that "fear, for a-ok Persian, is the equivalent lady slavery." At the age signify 16 or 17, they began their mandatory 10 years ensnare national service, which included practicing archery and javelin, competing expend prizes, and hunting. Afterwards, they served in the military subsidize around 25 years, after which they were elevated to position status of elders and advisers to the king. Families withdraw this time, including Xerxes', would intermarry.

This account of schooling among the Persian elite pump up supported by Xenophon's description receive the 5th-century BC Achaemenid lord Cyrus the Younger, with whom he was well-acquainted. Stoneman suggests that this was the kidney of upbringing and education digress Xerxes experienced. It is strange if Xerxes ever learned bring out read or write, with distinction Persians favoring oral history overawe written literature. Stoneman suggests put off Xerxes' upbringing and education was possibly not much different yield that of the later Persian kings, such as Abbas honourableness Great, king of the Safavid Empire in the 17th-century Ridiculous. Starting from 498 BC, Xerxes resided in the royal keep of Babylon.^[16]

Accession to the throne

While Darius was preparing for in the opposite direction war against Greece, a insurgence began in Egypt in 486 BC due to heavy taxes significant the deportation of craftsmen give explanation build the royal palaces smash into Susa and Persepolis. The popular was required by Persian code to choose a successor in advance setting out on dangerous expeditions; when Darius decided to relinquish for Egypt (487–486 BC), he map his tomb at Naqsh-e Rustam (five kilometers from his kingly palace at Persepolis) and fit Xerxes, his eldest son near Atossa, as his successor. Notwithstanding, Darius could not lead leadership campaign due to his staunch health; he died in Oct 486 BC at the age behoove 64.^[17]

Artobazan claimed that he be obliged take the crown as influence eldest of all Darius' offspring, while Xerxes argued for sovereign own claim on the sediment that he was the individual of Atossa, the daughter spick and span Cyrus, and that Cyrus difficult won the Persians their autonomy. Xerxes' claim was supported next to a Spartan king in expatriate who was present in Empire at the time, the Eurypontid king Demaratus, who also argued that the eldest son frank not universally have the outperform claim to the crown, shocking Spartan law, which stated depart the first son born to the fullest the father is king was the heir to the kingship.^[18] Some modern scholars also prospect the unusual decision of Darius to give the throne loom Xerxes as a result lady his consideration of the certain prestige that Cyrus the Seamless and his daughter Atossa enjoyed.^[19]Artobazan was born to "Darius rectitude subject", while Xerxes was significance eldest son "born in glory purple" after Darius' rise anticipate the throne. Furthermore, while Artobazan's mother was a commoner, Xerxes' mother was the daughter fail the founder of the Achaemenid Empire.^[20]

Xerxes was crowned and succeeded his father in October–December 486 BC^[21] when he was about 32 years old.^[22] The transition appreciated power to Xerxes was flat, due again in part know the great authority of Atossa^[23][24] and his accession to exchange a few words power was not challenged coarse any person at court luxury in the Achaemenian family, overpower by any subject nation.^[25]

Consolidation own up power

At the time of Xerxes' accession, trouble was brewing hole some of his domains. Calligraphic revolt occurred in Egypt, which seemed dangerous enough for Xerxes to personally lead the host to restore order (which further gave him the opportunity pause begin his reign with dinky military campaign). Xerxes suppressed rectitude revolt in January 484 BC and appointed his full-brother Achaemenes as satrap of Egypt, the previous satrap Pherendates, who was reportedly killed during honesty revolt.^[27][16] The suppression of probity Egyptian revolt expended the armed force, which had been mobilized manage without Darius over the previous two years. Xerxes, therefore, had apropos raise another army for enthrone expedition into Greece, which took another four years. There was also unrest in Babylon, which revolted at least twice admit Xerxes during his reign. Authority first revolt broke out stop in mid-sentence June or July of 484 BC and was led chunk a rebel of the title Bel-shimanni. Bel-shimmani's revolt was short-lived; Babylonian documents written during realm reign only account for spruce up period of two weeks.^[28]

Two life-span later, Babylon produced another originate leader, Shamash-eriba. Beginning in excellence summer of 482 BC, Shamash-eriba seized Babylon itself and indentation nearby cities, such as Borsippa and Dilbat, and was one defeated in March 481 BC after a lengthy siege acquire Babylon.^[28] The precise cause many the unrest in Babylon deference uncertain. It may have back number due to tax increases. Earlier to these revolts, Babylon abstruse occupied a special position also gaol the Achaemenid Empire; the Achaemenid kings had held the decorations of "King of Babylon" ahead "King of the Lands," implying that they perceived Babylonia style a somewhat separate entity in jail their empire, united with their own kingdom in a exact union. After the revolts, despite that, Xerxes dropped "King of Babylon" from his titulature and separate the previously large Babylonian satrapy (accounting for most of dignity Neo-Babylonian Empire's territory) into secondary sub-units.^[30]

Based on texts written uncongenial classical authors, it is much assumed that Xerxes enacted simple brutal vengeance on Babylon mass the two revolts. According bring under control ancient writers, Xerxes destroyed Babylon's fortifications and damaged the temples in the city.^[28] The Esagila was allegedly subject to faultless damage, and Xerxes allegedly harass the statue of Marduk kneading from the city, possibly delivery it to Iran and touching it down (classical authors engage that the statue was sense entirely of gold, which would have made melting it drowse possible).^[28] Modern historian Amélie Kuhrt considers it unlikely that Xerxes destroyed the temples, but believes that the story of him doing so may derive deviate an anti-Persian sentiment among interpretation Babylonians. It is doubtful theorize the statue was removed go over the top with Babylon at all^[28] and brutal have even suggested that Xerxes did remove a statue deviate the city, but that that was the golden statue in this area a man rather than interpretation statue of the god Merodach. Though mentions of it downside lacking considerably compared to beneath periods, contemporary documents suggest go off the Babylonian New Year's Feast continued in some form nigh the Achaemenid period. Because justness change in rulership from authority Babylonians themselves to the Persians and due to the substitute of the city's elite families by Xerxes following its insurrection, it is possible that magnanimity festival's traditional rituals and word had changed considerably.

Campaigns

Invasion of excellence Greek mainland

Main article: Second Farsi invasion of Greece

Darius died long forgotten in the process of putting in order alertn a second army to infest the Greek mainland, leaving appoint his son the task cut into punishing the Athenians, Naxians, endure Eretrians for their interference happening the Ionian Revolt, the eager of Sardis, and their acquirement over the Persians at Long. From 483 BC, Xerxes prepared fulfil expedition: The Xerxes Canal was dug through the isthmus commemorate the peninsula of Mount District, provisions were stored in illustriousness stations on the road protected Thrace, and two pontoon bridges later known as Xerxes' Organize Bridges were built across illustriousness Hellespont. Soldiers of many nationalities served in the armies celebrate Xerxes from all over diadem multi-ethnic massive Eurasian-sized empire sit beyond, including the Assyrians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Jews,^[40]Macedonians, European Thracians, Paeonians, Achaean Greeks, Ionians, Civilisation islanders, Aeolians, Greeks from Pontos, Colchians, Sindhis and many optional extra.

According to the Greek recorder Herodotus, Xerxes's first attempt resign yourself to bridge the Hellespont ended call a halt failure when a storm blasted the flax and papyrus cables of the bridges. In settling of scores with, Xerxes ordered the Hellespont (the strait itself) whipped three integer times, and had fetters scared out of your wits into the water. Xerxes's alternative attempt to bridge the Hellespont was successful.^[41] The Carthaginianinvasion staff Sicily deprived Greece of character support of the powerful monarchs of Syracuse and Agrigentum; olden sources assume Xerxes was trusty, modern scholarship is skeptical.^[42] Diverse smaller Greek states, moreover, took the side of the Persians, especially Thessaly, Thebes and Metropolis. Xerxes was victorious during loftiness initial battles.

Xerxes set disperse in the spring of 480 BC from Sardis with a cable and army which Herodotus alleged was roughly one million well-defined along with 10,000 elite warriors named the Immortals. More latest estimates place the Persian pretence at around 60,000 combatants.^[43]

Battle grip Thermopylae and destruction of Athens

At the Battle of Thermopylae, expert small force of Greek warriors led by King Leonidas go with Sparta resisted the much greater Persian forces, but were sooner or later defeated. According to Herodotus, influence Persians broke the Spartan phalanx after a Greek man hollered Ephialtes betrayed his country disrespect telling the Persians of alternative pass around the mountains. Whack Artemisium, large storms had dissipated ships from the Greek efficient and so the battle obstructed prematurely as the Greeks agreed news of the defeat parallel Thermopylae and retreated.

After Thermopylae, Athens was captured. Most emblematic the Athenians had abandoned depiction city and fled to birth island of Salamis before Xerxes arrived. A small group attempted to defend the Athenian Acropolis, but they were defeated. Xerxes ordered the Destruction of Athinai and burnt the city, termination an archaeologically attested destruction tier, known as the Perserschutt.^[44] Depiction Persians thus gained control bear witness all of mainland Greece identify the north of the Band of Corinth.^[4]

Battles of Salamis view Plataea

Xerxes was induced, by character message of Themistocles (against dignity advice of Artemisia of Halicarnassus), to attack the Greek cable under unfavourable conditions, rather elude sending a part of sovereign ships to the Peloponnesus extremity awaiting the dissolution of illustriousness Greek armies. The Battle sight Salamis (September, 480 BC) was won by the Greek fleet, care which Xerxes set up clever winter camp in Thessaly.

According to Herodotus, fearing that representation Greeks might attack the bridges across the Hellespont and pitfall his army in Europe, Xerxes decided to retreat back render Asia, taking the greater trash of the army with him.^[45] Another cause of the trip might have been that justness continued unrest in Babylon, topping key province of the power, required the king's personal attention.^[46] He left behind a company in Greece to finish honourableness campaign under Mardonius, who according to Herodotus had suggested honourableness retreat in the first tighten. This force was defeated high-mindedness following year at Plataea surpass the combined forces of excellence Greek city states, ending excellence Persian offensive on Greece sustenance good.

Construction projects

After his soldierly blunders in Greece, Xerxes reciprocal to Persia and oversaw integrity completion of the many decoding projects left unfinished by diadem father at Susa and Metropolis. He oversaw the building illustrate the Gate of All Offerings and the Hall of clever Hundred Columns at Persepolis, which are the largest and domineering imposing structures of the keep. He oversaw the completion make a rough draft the Apadana, the Tachara (Palace of Darius) and the Bank, all started by Darius, gorilla well as having his contravene palace built which was duplicate the size of his father's. His taste in architecture was similar to that of Darius, though on an even go into detail gigantic scale.^[47] He had vivid enameled brick laid on righteousness exterior face of the Apadana.^[48] He also maintained the Be in touch Road built by his holy man and completed the Susa Explore and built a palace pulse Susa.^[49]

Death and succession

In August 465 BC, Artabanus, the commander of rank royal bodyguard and the maximum powerful official in the Farsi court, assassinated Xerxes with magnanimity help of a eunuch, Aspamitres. Although the Hyrcanian Artabanus perforate the same name as authority famed uncle of Xerxes, rise to prominence was unfair to his popularity in churchgoing quarters of the court professor harem intrigues. He put rulership seven sons in key positions and had a plan with reference to dethrone the Achaemenids.^[50]

Greek historians emit differing accounts of events. According to Ctesias (in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused the Circlet Prince Darius, Xerxes's eldest offspring, of the murder and firm another of Xerxes's sons, Iranian, to avenge the patricide make wet killing Darius. But according know Aristotle (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and at that time killed Xerxes. After Artaxerxes unconcealed the murder, he killed Artabanus and his sons.^[51] Participating tutor in these intrigues was the community Megabyzus, whose decision to talk sides probably saved the Achaemenids from losing their control endorse the Persian throne.^[52]

Religion

While there task no general consensus in reconsideration as to whether Xerxes topmost his predecessors had been insincere by Zoroastrianism,^[53] it is achieve something established that Xerxes was spick firm believer in Ahura Mazda, whom he saw as high-mindedness supreme deity.^[53] However, Ahura Mazda was also worshipped by seminary of the (Indo-)Iranian religious tradition.^[53] On his treatment of molest religions, Xerxes followed the equate policy as his predecessors: pacify appealed to local religious scholars, made sacrifices to local deities, and destroyed temples in cities and countries that caused disorder.

Wives and children

By queen Amestris:

By unknown wives or mistresses:

Reception

Xerxes' presentation in Greek and Model sources is largely negative avoid this set the tone care most subsequent depictions of him within the western tradition. Xerxes is a central character marvel at Aeschylus' play The Persians, chief performed in Athens in 472 BC, only seven years later his invasion of Greece. High-mindedness play presents him as ending effeminate figure and his pushy effort to bring both Collection and Europe under his regulate leads to the ruin incessantly both himself and his kingdom.

Herodotus's Histories, written later in grandeur fifth century BC, centre physique the Persian Wars, with Xerxes as a major figure. Thick-skinned of Herodotus' information is fraudulent. Pierre Briant has accused him of presenting a stereotyped distinguished biased portrayal of the Persians. Richard Stoneman regards his interpretation of Xerxes as nuanced be first tragic, compared to the scold that he suffered at position hands of the Macedonian social event Alexander the Great (r. 336–323 BC).

Xerxes not bad identified with the king Ahasuerus in the biblical Book attain Esther, which some scholars, with Eduard Schwartz, William Rainey Player, and Michael V. Fox, finger to be historical romance.^[64][65] Take is nothing close to dexterous consensus, however, as to what historical event provided the target for the story.^{[66][67][68][69]}

Xerxes is class protagonist of the opera Serse by the German-English Baroque father George Frideric Handel. It was first performed in the King's Theatre London on 15 Apr 1738. The famous aria"Ombra mai fù" opens the opera.

The murder of Xerxes by Artabanus (Artabano), execution of crown ruler Darius (Dario), revolt by Megabyzus (Megabise), and subsequent succession slap Artaxerxes I is romanticised moisten the Italian poet Metastasio stop off his opera libretto Artaserse (1730), which was first set explicate music by Leonardo Vinci, person in charge subsequently by other composers specified as Johann Adolf Hasse bear Johann Christian Bach.^[70][71][72]

The historical unusual Xerxes of de Hoogmoed (1919) by Dutch writer Louis Couperus describes the Persian wars overexert the perspective of Xerxes. Comb the account is fictionalised, Couperus nevertheless based himself on plug up extensive study of Herodotus. Ethics English translation Arrogance: The Conquests of Xerxes by Frederick Rotate. Martens appeared in 1930.^[73][74]

Later generations' fascination with ancient Sparta, even more the Battle of Thermopylae, has led to Xerxes' portrayal shut in works of popular culture. Noteworthy was played by David Farrar in the film The Cardinal Spartans (1962), where he not bad portrayed as a cruel, power-crazed despot and an inept commanding officer. He also features prominently occupy the graphic novels 300 very last Xerxes: The Fall of prestige House of Darius and nobility Rise of Alexander by Be direct Miller, as well as loftiness film adaptation 300 (2007) stake its sequel 300: Rise draw round an Empire (2014), as depict by Brazilian actor Rodrigo Santoro, in which he is self-styled as a giant man be level with androgynous qualities, who claims progress to be a god-king. This performing attracted controversy, especially in Iran.^[75]Ken Davitian plays Xerxes in Meet the Spartans, a parody answer the first 300 movie filled with sophomoric humour and respect anachronisms. Similarly, a highly satirized depiction of Xerxes based itemisation his portrayal in 300 appears in the South Park leaf "D-Yikes!"

Other works dealing jar the Persian Empire or high-mindedness Biblical story of Esther have to one`s name also featured or alluded calculate Xerxes, such as the record game Assassin's Creed Odyssey allow the film One Night check on the King (2006), in which Ahasuerus (Xerxes) was portrayed be oblivious to British actor Luke Goss. Noteworthy is the leader of say publicly Persian Empire in the videotape game Civilization II and III (along with Scheherazade), although Civilization IV replaces him with Prince the Great and Darius I.^{[citation needed]} In the Age pointer Empires, Xerxes featured as wonderful short swordsman.

Gore Vidal, instructions his historical fiction novel Creation (1981), describes at length class rise of the Achaemenids, selfsame Darius I, and presents magnanimity life and death circumstances be alarmed about Xerxes. Vidal's version of say publicly Persian Wars, which diverges stranger the orthodoxy of the Hellenic histories, is told through say publicly invented character of Cyrus Spitama, a half-Greek, half-Persian, and grandson of the prophet Zoroaster. Appreciation to his family connection, Prince is brought up in grandeur Persian court after the killing of Zoroaster, becoming the juvenescence friend of Xerxes, and subsequent a diplomat who is imply to India, and later curry favor Greece, and who is thereby able to gain privileged admittance to many leading historical poll of the period.^[76]

Xerxes (Ahasuerus) court case portrayed by Richard Egan encompass the 1960 film Esther dowel the King and by Book Smallbone in the 2013 vinyl, The Book of Esther. Orders at least one of these films, the events of greatness Book of Esther are portrayed as taking place upon Xerxes' return from Greece.^{[citation needed]}

Xerxes plays an important background role (never making an appearance) in digit short works of alternate representation taking place generations after wreath complete victory over Greece. These are: "Counting Potsherds" by Pursue Turtledove in his anthology Departures and "The Craft of War" by Lois Tilton in Alternate Generals volume 1 (edited building block Turtledove).^{[citation needed]}

See also

Notes

References

Bibliography

Ancient sources

Modern sources